When examining the Arts & Crafts garden it is important to examine both the social conditions that gave it its form and ideology and the art movements that gave it its character and aesthetic quality. Speaking of the former, the industrialization of England played a large role. It led to the rise of the middle-class, leading to many people having suburban estates with gardens. These gardens largely lifted designs from various types of historical gardens in an unoriginal and monotonous way. The result was uninspired and seemed to reflect the lack of creativity and individualism that was often considered a negative outcome of industrialization. The Arts & Crafts gardens attempted to do away with the industrialization England was forced to deal with. Instead the focus became traditional craftsmanship and a simpler, more folky approach to garden architecture and design. The result aimed to feel old-fashioned and reconnect man with nature. In this sense the Arts & Crafts garden was not merely a reaction to industrialization but was a way of advocating social reform against it. 

Just as important to the way Arts & Crafts gardens took their form was the paintings of those like Turner and Monet. It was especially the impressionism and natural subjects of the paintings of Monet that gave inspiration to the "painterly" qualities of the gardens. The partnership of Jekyll and Lutyens allowed for a synthesis of the house and gardens. One flowed into another. Already, this gave the house a more natural feeling than those of industrialization. Jekyll trained as an artist herself, and applied painterly colour theory to the design of the garden. She scrupulously arranged the flowers and plants of the garden in a way that really did give it the painterly quality of a Monet painting, creating such dazzling perennial borders that the majesty of the gardens is hard to beat. They were not just geometrically designed in a way that was pleasing, but were filled with fountains and arches and courtyards all perfectly lined with the correct arrangement of plants. It made the garden a more than appealing retreat from industrialization and a compelling argument for the importance of nature, perhaps now more than ever. 

Jekyll's Munstead home shows the return to simpler and more traditional values

 The display of eloquent perennial borders that characterized the painterly gardens

 Here is the design for the borders, showing that this was no easy task. Painstaking effort leading to seamless execution and aesthetic pleasure

The key forces and ideas behind the Villa Gardens of the Victorian era come from a few main backgrounds. Importantly, the industrial revolution caused the population of England and Wales to skyrocket from 10 million to 40 million from just 1800 to 1900. Besides the boom in population was the increased distribution of wealth, so there were more wealthy members of the middle class and larger urban spaces. This in turn lead to a large amount of suburban villas, which in turn creates a huge boom of acreage to be used for gardening. Another important element of these gardens was one influencing 19th century gardening for a while, which was the triumph of art over nature. The idea of "gardenesque" emerged, which meant that every part of the garden should obviously come from man. There should be no mistaking its intent and artistic quality. The last but important part of victorian villas was that, due to a new documenting and available history of gardens, there was a lot of past influence entering the garden. This all added up to what some critics labeled as "pastry-cutter" gardening. This was also in part because the industrial revolution created a plethora of resources and finances to furnish one's own garden. Villa garden's often had beds cut into the lawns by the house itself. This allowed for a display of bedding, which is geometrically arranged arrays of colorful flowers. It is highly ornate and quite clearly man-made as opposed to natural. This, along with shrubberies, might be found closest to the house. As one moved farther away, the garden would become less formal. There might be large lawns with little-to-no bedding. In place of this would be features unique to industrial times, such as glasshouses, which could house exotic and tropical plants due to heating systems. There could also be easily acquired and mass-produced ornaments of cast iron and synthetic stone, giving one the option to include various statues and figures.

                               An example of the type of bedding and shrubbery that might appear:

Glasshouses could be heated and allowed for new types of plants from different climates:

                                         Mass-produced ornaments made decorating easy for all:

The gardens of Copenhagen play a role that many urban gardens do: to provide escape and enjoyment of nature within the busy and often draining environment of a city. The Rosenborg Castle Gardens are in the center of the city, and serve as not only one of the oldest gardens within Copenhagen but also as one of the most popular. The gardens contain the Rosenborg castle, which is an interesting destination for both tourists and people who live in the city to visit. The garden itself has many trees and flowers lining the walkways, as well as statues and large lawns for people to relax on. Especially in the summer, when there are concerts, this garden becomes a place for people within the center of the city to relax and slow down. This is especially important now, as it gives the vibe that Copenhagen is of course a metropolis, but that even in the center of the city there is an importance on green space and the ability to enjoy more leisurely time.

The Botanical gardens, located closer to Norreport and by the Copenhagen University, provide a similar place to escape the city. The gardens possess not just outdoor grounds to walk around but various greenhouses that are home to tropical plants and trees. The entire area provides not just the relaxation and enjoyment of nature that Rosenborg offers but an actual look at many different interesting species of plants. Once again, this emphasizes that even within a city like Copenhagen there is still a respect and appreciation for our natural surroundings. Before Copenhagen was made into a city it was filled with the plants and grass that the botanical garden offers, so it is a reminder of what this city truly is.

The Kastellet is another example of a green space within Copenhagen, and an interesting one in-part since it was originally a fort. The parts of the earth that had been used to construct walls have now become public greenspace. This serves to turn a once industrial sign of war into a natural and relaxing area for the modern citizens to use. This emphasizes the sustainability of Copenhagen and the importance of green space.

Though an integral part of the english landscapes of the 18th century, Charles Bridgeman is a bit harder to classify than Kent and Brown. Bridgeman was more of a transitional figure, one who incorporated the traditional geometry of French gardens while still embracing the natural landscape and countryside in a entirely progressive way. Geometric lines remained within the garden, but Bridgeman also used transitional features such as moulded lawns to take away much of the decadence and formality of rococo gardening. Instead, he opened the garden up into the landscape. This opening of the garden is probably his biggest contribution, specifically in the form of the “Ha-Ha.”  The ha-ha was a trench that allowed the garden to end, yet seemingly fade into the “borrowed landscape.” This effectively brought the garden from being a walled-in enclosure to fusing in with the surroundings and natural landscape. This gave gardens a completely different meaning and layout. 

                      a mix of formal planning and natural embrace

Kent took up the deformalism mentioned above and took it to new levels and ideas. He turned canals into lakes and gave lawns collections of trees, all effectively blurring the line further between rural garden and natural landscape. But this is not to say Kent’s gardens suffered from a lack of meaning or organizing principle. In fact, the case is quite the opposite. Being inspired by classical themes and the romanticism of Italy, he sculpted gardens in a way that paths would wind around objects such as temples and sculptures in a way that told a narrative dealing with grand themes such as sexuality and virtue. In this way, Kent combined art and nature (or perhaps merely brought out the first in the second) to create poetic gardens that were experienced on a theatrical scale.

  A landscape featuring classical themes, slowly teasing out a cohesive narrative

Last but certainly not least, Lancelot Brown is probably the most famous of 18th century English landscapers. Brown did not dive as deeply into the intellectual realm of the classics like Kent. Instead, Brown aimed at creating landscapes that applied to the soul rather than the mind. For this inspiration, he needn’t look further than the countryside of England. Unlike his contemporaries, the latent beauty and simplicity of nature was enough for him to create simple yet profoundly effective landscapes. His concern for making natural environments led him to consider himself a “place-maker.” He created subtle movement throughout a landscape, manipulating hills and planting of trees in a way that in turn manipulated light and shadows. He is the pinnacle of creating a garden that is not recognizable as something man-made.  

a subtly tweaked and refined landscape that appears quite natural

Under the reign of Louis XIV, France experienced a period of power and success that at the time was unparalleled. Versailles was not merely an extension of this power, or some sort of flaunting of wealth just for the sake of flaunting it. The gardens of Versailles were composed of highly complex and intricately executed designs and themes that were meant to create a perfect and ideal space, one that could only be seen under the perfect and ideal leadership of Louis XIV. In particular, Le Notre’s understanding of geometric spatial planning and a new emphasis on “clarity, simplicity, austerity, and refinement” (96) are what make Versailles such a unique and effective garden. Le Notre managed to take such a vast space and create gardens that never feel overwhelming or necessarily ornate. Throughout the garden, the various references and images of the sun god give a sacredness to the gardens, as well as also emphasizing the divine role of Louis XIV. The effect of having such geometrically perfect planning and symbols of Louis’s power is that Versailles becomes a microcosm for France itself. Rolling through the gardens, one is not just aware of Louis’s power or wealth, or the great vastness of the gardens. One instead feels that all attributes of the gardens are ones that France herself shares. As a nation, France is vast, prosperous, and bursting forward with life. Given this context, it makes even more sense that Louis XIV also used Versailles as a way to keep the nobles under his thumb. It was not just a garden that was pleasurable to stroll around in (although it certainly is that, too). It is all the ideals of France under Louis’s reign communicated via the art of gardens. In this way, Versailles takes gardens from mere pleasure to a level of spatial design that gives more meaning than ever to what a garden could mean.    

This first photo exemplifies the vast yet simple approach to Versaille, which emphasizes its role as a refined and subtle encapsulation of all that was France at the time. 

This photo shows the Latona Fountain, which depicts the story of Apollo and Diana surrounded by ungrateful peasants, which is an allegory for the Fronde. This emphasizes Louis's roll within France

Given the explosion of art and culture during the Italian Renaissance, garden art persisted and was in many ways stronger than ever. Even though there was such mastery of arts such as sculpting and painting, gardens remained an important part of artistic culture. What is it that makes the art of gardens unique and different from these other art forms, and why did gardens continue to be important even amongst all the masterworks happening within painting, architecture, sculptures, etc?


The Italian Renaissance was a time of great discovery and creation, and garden art is no exception. One might think that perhaps amongst the great volume of art being produced in other forms of art, the idea of complex and innovative gardens might not be as important. Perhaps it would have been good enough to create simple gardens and fill them with already impressive sculptures. But we can see from examples such as the magnificent Tivoli Gardens that this is simply not the case. Garden's reached what was at the time all-time heights as far as complexity and beauty of design is concerned. The reason for a continual interest in the art of gardens is that they provide a type of creative outlet that other arts cannot. Though one can master painting or sculpture, this is still mastery of human elements. One can perfectly blend paints and create a master still life or portrait. But this process is entirely human. On the other hand, gardening is the manipulation of nature. It is the taming and organizing of raw elements into something coherent and beautiful. This contact and tension between man and nature is what makes gardening not just special but uniquely rewarding and inviting. It is a way for man to both relate and feel closer with his natural surroundings but also to show his triumph and control over said surroundings. Taking the raw landscape and carefully cultivating an organized haven shows the true triumph of man. It is taking essentially natural chaos and creating something natural yet so intricate that only man could have done it. This is exemplified nowhere better than the gardens of the Renaissance, which not only master plants and flowers but also powerfully uses water to create stunning fountains and other hydraulic features. Looking at a Renaissance garden is not simply a way of seeing the beauty of nature, but also the power and triumph of man. Yes, this may be understood through art such as painting. But it is not to the same effect. It is an entirely man-made creation. On the other hand, gardens are the synthesis of the massive and sublime essence of nature and the controlled and delicate creations of man. 

The Renaissance ushered in a completely new way of understanding man's relationship with his surroundings. Through re-exploring classical cultures and creating a more secularized culture than that of the Middle Ages, a new era of humanism revitalized the arts. This newfound humanism permeated all of Renaissance culture, and can be seen clearly in the garden art created during this time. There was not just a love of nature and God, but a new understanding of how man related to these aspects of life. Unlike the themes of submissive worship that were part of medieval culture, the studying of classic civilizations reintroduced the glory and triumph of man. This glory and pride in the human condition is abundant in garden culture, especially looking at the tremendously impressive tivoli gardens at the villa d'este. Humanism explored the beauty and importance of those aspects of life that emphasized man as opposed to something divine. Similarly, there was an emphasis on nature but also on mans ability to plot and cultivate it in an aesthetically pleasing and enjoyable way. Instead of the small introverted gardens of the medieval times, Renaissance gardens were grand and intricately planned spectacles to show the beauty and achievements of man. This is exemplified at the villa by axial alignment, multiple terraces, and a large and impressive pergola by the bottom entrance. But most impressive are the multiple water features of tivoli. These strongly emphasize the beauty and power of man as he works to control nature, and are also just simply beautiful. The row of a hundred fountains emphasizes romes relation to water and the accomplishments of man. Throughout the garden is various mythical and religious sculptures, which more than for worships sake emphasize the long history of culture and art that the Renaissance is building upon. Overall the garden does not so much summon divine figures but instead shows the near-divinity of man. In general, the gardens of the Renaissance reassert the notion that nothing is more glorious than mans ability to imagine and create.

Although the gardens of roman, medieval, and islamic culture all share a preoccupation with religion, there is a marked difference in the way each incorporates it into the space of the garden. As discussed in class, Roman garden's were sacro-religious, in the sense that there was an inclusion of divine dietiese that related directly to the garden and outdoor activities. Roman gardens usually had statues of Gods, but mainly those like Venus, who directly related to the culture of Gardens. On a larger scale, Roman Garden's were not as strictly religious as those of the medieval monks or Islamic culture. This may be because of their general flourishing as a culture. They certainly contributed some of their success to piety, but gardens did not need to be another opportunity for them to show their religious commitment. Instead, Roman gardens were more representative of the idea of Otium, which is withdrawing from daily responsibilities to focus on liesure and creative pursuits. the first picture i have linked to below shows how Roman gardens were more for liesure than piety, and this is reflected in their aesthetically pleasing layout that is largely free of religious connotations. On the other hand, the medieval ages were less "glorious" and there was a resulting focus on the importance of religion. Monastic gardens became another way to connect with god, moreso than the gardens of the romans. For this reason, the layout of medieval gardens directly related to religion. There were often evergreen trees and four paths to symbolize the garden of eden. This focus on religion within the garden reflects the lack of liesure that religious life consisted of. Unlike the romans, who's gardens were much more aesthetically pleasing, monastic gardens were to continue one's religious work. The second photo I've included highlights the utilitatirian design of medieval gardens, which allowed monks to work outside but still maintain their sense of discipline. It also highlights the religious setup present in the intersecting paths and fountain in the middle. Like the monks of medieval time, islamic people also used the garden to create a sense of an earthly religious haven. Muslims made their gradens in such a way that it was meant to literally create heaven on earth. The garden was not merely a liesurely escape, but was a paradise of the afterlife. This is echoed by the four intersecting water streams, which was also part of medieval gardens. the last photo i've included shows the way an islamic paradies builds a sense of heavenly paradise, through similar features of water and plants. 

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Throughout European history, there has been a need for the display of both wealth and control. The reason the garden is so intrinsically tied to European culture is that it provides both proof of said wealth and control. As we discussed in class, gardens can be a haven; a place to provide an escape. But more than just an escape, gardens are a place that can show one’s own style and taste. Gardens are not merely a haven, but an area that can be controlled and cultivated in a specific way. It provides the owner of the garden a chance to conceive of an overall design that is executed through the organization of plants. This design says just as much about the owner of the garden as the garden itself. In this sense, the garden becomes a chance to show others the personality of the owner of the house. Although gardening may seem like something of a hobby, being able to create a space that is intricately curated gives the owner a sense of ownership and pride that they can show to others. Inviting people into one’s garden displays the personal taste and wealth of the owner and garden. On this same note, the order and structure of gardens provide a sense of safety within a fluctuating world. Specifically, the idea of a maze garden echoes the structure a garden can provide. Religiously, a maze can provide a rode to “salvation”. But more broadly, the idea of organized gardens provides a sense of control that gives one a feeling of safety within an ever changing world. This agent of power and decision-making is what has made gardens so popular throughout the history of European art and culture. I have provided some photos of symmetrical and intricately designed gardens to show the level of control and complexity that gardens can achieve. This complexity is exactly what provides the owner with a sense of accomplishment and success. 

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